Preamble

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN (hereinafter referred to as the “Parties”):

HAVING a mutual interest in research and development relating to homeland security matters;

SEEKING to make the best use of their respective research and technology development capacities,
eliminate unnecessary duplication  of work and obtain the most efficient and cost effective results
through cooperative activities;

DESIRING  to increase the exchanges of information and personnel in areas pertinent to the
identification of homeland security threats and countermeasures and consequence management and
the development of technical standards, operational procedures, and supporting methodologies that
govern the use of relevant technologies;

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FOI Swedish Defence Research Agency:

Miniaturization is one of the most powerful technology trends. Nanotechnology is here providing new materials with new properties. And micro-system technology providing sensors small as grains of dust or antennas only one thousandth of a millimeter in size (for optical frequencies). Or components so small that they can connect in nontrivial fashion to the brain. Shaking hands/talking with the brains minutest parts.

Sensors small as dust. Or components which can connect themselves to the nervous system. Miniaturization is a powerful technology trend.

What can be done with a lot of money in U.S. laboratories is one thing. Another thing is what can be realized in the form of cheap everyday objects.

The common-sense definition of Miniaturization is that a component or system has become smaller while performing at least as well.
Or it could be something built out of very small parts resulting in a new or improved function.

Another important concept in addition to nanotechnology, microsystems technology.
The researchers are talking about components plugged into the nervous system that can talk to the brain. These components would help the soldier to extract his subconscious.

The soldier sees more than he thinks. The small components would capture the information that would otherwise be missed.

The boundary between technology and biology is blurred and biology and technology are converging.

One can imagine solutions to change the body’s biological systems, such as modifying the biochemistry and compensate for the lack of sleep.
Or to take control of the nervous system of an animal, thereby creating biological UAVs. (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle)

Read article here

• A vast amount of experimental data and knowledge has accumulated –
models can drive organization

• Different brain areas are being studied – models can unify data and knowledge

• Industrial‐scale science is generating a data deluge –
models can absorb the data

• Exascale databasing is becoming feasible ‐
the data can be managed

• Exascale supercomputing will be possible by 2018 ‐
thresholds has been reached to simulate biology

• Math and physics approaches can abstract most biological processes ‐
computer representation is possible.

Computer graphics, Internet, VR technologies can visualize massive data structures –
virtual structural and functional anatomy is possible

• VR and robotics can interface with brain models –
models can be tested and calibrated

• Comprehensive brain screening and scanning can provide medical data –
root causes can be simulated

•AI and neuromorphic technologies are waiting for brain inspired
architectures – new generation technologies can be
created

SUPPORT
The Blue Brain Project, supported by the Swiss Government, built a prototype facility.
The Spanish government committed to the project.
The project collaborates with many in Israel, Spain, Hungary, UK, USA, Sweden, etc
The flagship will involve many experimental, medical, theoretical, computer, robotics, and technology lab
including in France, Italy, Germany, USA, Greece, Austria, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Australia, etc
And a number of industry partners (pharma, bioservices & biotech, computer).
IBM is a technology partner.

Read document here

It has been defined that bioelectronics aims: “at the direct coupling of biomolecular function units of high molecular weight and extremely complicated molecular structure with electronic or optical transducer devices. Alternative and new concepts are being developed for future information technologies to address, control, read and use information. This requires the development of structures for signal uptake, transduction, amplification, processing and conversion.” (Göpel 1998, p.723). The interfacing of biomaterials and electronic devices will be used to: “transduce chemical signals generated by biological components into electronically (or photonically) readable signals, or to activate the biomaterials by applying electronic (or optical) signals, thus resulting in the switchable/tunable performance of the biological components.” (Katz 2006, p.1855).

The bioelectronic systems can be used to develop sensing devices and to develop biofuel cells (i.e. implantable biofuel cells for biomedical applications, self-powered biosensors, autonomously operated devices, etc.). (Katz 2006). Furthermore it has been stated that adding vision and development of nanotechnology to the combination of biotechnology and electronics will emphasize even more a major driving force in the research and development of novel materials or information technologies which is miniaturization of devices and systems to the nano-scale (i.e. nano-objects, such as nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, nanorods, etc.) (Katz 2006, Göpel 1998, Cass 2007). Research on the properties of cells and their interactions with the environment has made possible new forms of integration and interaction between biomaterials and electronic systems. Bioelectronics is promising for medical devices (implants, biosensors for monitoring purposes) but it also has lots of wider developmental opportunities for different areas. Applications include nanorobots, biological computers, biosensors, biochips, implants able to communicate with nerves, artificial stimulation of nerves, artificial touch, and artificial organs. Defining Features -Miniaturisation:

When new technological solutions are getting smaller and smaller but still having more computational power than supercomputers 50 years ago, we are reaching visions of nanotechnology.

Invisibility: -Miniaturisation of technology makes invisibility possible. It is now more possible to see how and what technology is utilised in particular contexts.

As bioelectronics can in the future be even more invisible, for part of our lives the technology will be in some sense a much more unnoticeable part of our everyday lives.

-Technology as part of human being (within/with/around). Bioelectronics will be integrated in our lives very deeply. Already you can have bioelectronic solutions that are either inside human beings, used as wearables or that are surrounding us without anyone else than the “user” or “controller” themselves knowing about these technologies.

-Monitoring everything we do/are. Bioelectronics makes it possible to monitor every aspect of human life and various environments in invisible ways. -Treatment of previously uncured diseases or injuries. Bioelectronics represents new solutions for previously uncured diseases or injuries. In that sense they are just as a new medicine for treatment of human beings. -Control over your body and mind. With bioelectronic applications it might be possible to even control individuals remotely.

Timeline 1900 – Integrating biology to electronics 1950 – Establishing strong “bioelectronical” research and practical landscape, especially for medical applications 1970 – Emergence of bioelectronics as a term 2010 – Strong emphasis on development of bioelectronical science 2010 – Implementation of various biosensors for various purposes. Strong investments for further development of research area (i.e. bionanotechnology). Relation to other Technologies Bioelectronics is closely related to nanotechnology, biotechnology and electronics as it is a clear convergence of the said technologies. It also seems to be as an enabling technology for applications that are commonly described in relation to affective computing, human-machine or ambient intelligence. Quantum computing could also be seen as an enabling technology for biocomputing which is also mentioned as an application area for bioelectronics. Critical Issues Dehumanising factors. McGee (2008) points out that bioelectronics is one of the most important enabling technologies that can affect the current meaning of being human. She states, that: “ In the future, if it becomes possible both to clone an individual and to implant a chip with the uploaded memories, emotions, and knowledge of the clone’s source, a type of immortality could be achieved” (p.208). References Academic Publications Göpel, W. (1998). Bioelectronics and Nanotechnologies Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Vol.13, No. 6, September 1998 , pp. 723-728(6). Elsevier. Göpel, W., Zieglera, Ch., Breerb, H., Schildc, D., Apfelbachd, R., Joergese J. and Malaka R. (1998). Bioelectronic noses: a status report Part I. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. Vol. 13, Issues 3-4, 1 March 1998, Pp 479-493. Elsevier. Katz, E. (2006). Bioelectronics. In Electroanalysis Vol.18, No.19-20, Pp. 1885-1857 Willner, I. and Katz, E. (eds) (2005). Introduction. Bioelectronics: From Theory to Applications Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany 2005. McGee, Ellen (2008). Bioelectronics and Implanted Devices. Medical Enhancement and Posthumanity. In The International Library of Ethics, Law and Technology. Vol. 2. Springer Netherlands. Pp. 207- 223. Websites Walker, G.M., Ramsey, J.M., Cavin, R.K., Herr, D.J.C, Merzbacher, C.I., Zhirnov, V. (2009). A Framework for BIOELECTRONICS – Discovery and Innovation. Bioelectronics roundtable report. Retrieved 2 June, 2010, from www.src.org/trc/bio/…/E003426_roadmapping_framework.pdf Zyga, L. (2007) Virtual 3D nanorobots could lead to real cancer-fighting technology. Retrieved 8 June, 2010 from http://www.physorg.com/news116071209.html. Research Groups The Integrated Bioelectronic Research Laboratory (IBR) at UCSC (UC Santa Cruz) http://ibr.soe.ucsc.edu/?file=kop1.php The Center for Bioelectronics, Biosensors and Biochips at Clemson University. http://www.ces.clemson.edu/c3b/index.html Research group of Bioelectronics & Bionanotechnology at Clarkson University http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/index.html National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science (NCBES), National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland. http://ncbes.nuigalway.ie/bioelectronics.aspx _________________ [1] http://www.clemson.edu/c3b/projects.html [1] http://www.clemson.edu/c3b/projects.html [1] http://www.physorg.com/news116071209.html http://moriarty.tech.dmu.ac.uk:8080/index.jsp?page=681815

„ Or, instead, will they relegate social diversity to the status of historical artifact?
„ What happens if we deduce through neuroimagingthe physiological basis for morality?
„ Or, and by the way, what happens to free will?”

Scientific American (Editorial), September 2003

„ Invasive research on humans could involve inhuman or degrading procedures.
„ Invasive research on humans could lead to new torture or inhumane punishment techniques.

Read Roboethics 2005 here

Neuroelectronics

History

Neuroelectronics, sometimes referred to as neurotechnology, is the discipline that deals with the interface between the human nervous system and electronic devices. It is a highly complex and interdisciplinary field with contributions from computer science, cognitive science, neurosurgery and biomedical engineering. Neuroelectronics has roughly three related branches: (1) neuroimaging, (2) brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), and (3) electrical neural stimulation. The discipline exists for more than half a century. However, in the last decade significant advances have been made, particularly in neuroimaging, which revolutionized the field by allowing researchers to directly monitor brain activity during experiments. And it is predicted that neuroelectronics, particularly neuroimaging and brain-computer interfacing, will be employed much more in the future.

Application Areas/Examples

Neuroimaging has two branches: (1) structural imaging, which tries to unravel the structure, or anatomy, of the brain, and (2) functional imaging, which tries to examine functions of (certain areas of) the brain. The latter enables a researcher to directly visualize how information is processed in different areas of the brain (European Technology Assessment Group, 2006). Both structural and functional neuroimaging are used for diagnostic as well as research purposes. Contemporary neuroimaging techniques such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) are used for cancer scanning, stroke rehabilitation and functional analyses of cognitive processes in the brain. fMRI is the cornerstone technology to study the human brain. Other neuroimaging techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetoencephalography (MEG), amongst others, are also used by researchers to study brain structure and function.

BCIs, sometimes called brain-machine interfaces (BMIs), are an emerging neurotechnology that translates brain activity into command signals for external devices. Research on BCIs began in the 1970s at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA). Researchers at UCLA also coined the term brain-computer interface. A BCI establishes a direct communication pathway between the brain and the device to be controlled. They are mainly being developed for medical reasons, because there is a societal demand for technologies which help to restore functions of humans with central nervous system (CNS) disabilities (Berger, 2007). Patients for whom a BCI would be useful usually have disabilities in motor function or communication. This could be (partly) restored by using a BCI to steer a motorized wheelchair, prosthesis, or by selecting letters on a computer screen with a cursor. Invasive or non-invasive electrodes are used to detect brain activity, which is subsequently translated by a signal processing unit into command signals for the external device. The most common BCI responds to specific patterns detected in spatiotemporal EEGs measured non-invasively from the scalp. Spatiotemporal EEGs can be controlled by imagining specific movements (Gasson & Warwick, 2007). So, merely by imagining movements one can steer a wheelchair, prosthesis or a cursor on a computer screen.

- Brain fingerprinting.

Brain fingerprinting is a particular application of neuroimaging. The idea behind it is that the brain processes known, relevant information differently from the way it processes unknown or irrelevant information. The brain’s processing of known information, such as the details of a crime stored in the brain, is revealed by a specific pattern in the EEG. So it is claimed that brain fingerprinting can be used for lie detection (Simon, 2005)

- BCI to control an aircraft.

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has a brain-machine interface program to control an aircraft (Rocco & Bainbridge, 2002).

- BCI to control a motorized wheelchair.

A BCI is being developed that enables a person with locked-in syndrome, a severe neurological disorder that almost totally paralyses a person, to control a motorized wheelchair (Berger, 2007).

- BCI for spelling.

A BCI may help to restore one’s ability to communicate. The application then uses brain signals to control a cursor on a computer screen. After some practice, the cursor control becomes accurate enough to spell words and sentences by using the interface to pick out letters of the alphabet from a virtual keyboard (Friman et al, 2007).

- Neuroimaging.

‘A wearable brain imaging tool will enable identification of children with learning disabilities, assessing the effectiveness of learning as well as identifying the emotional state of a human being’ (Beckert, Bluemel, Friedewald & Thielmann, 2008).

Definition and Defining Features

There are roughly three branches in neuroelectronics. Each branch uses different devices to interface with the brain, and each of these devices has different features. The first branch, neuroimaging, uses techniques such as fMRI, PET, MEG or EEG, amongst others, to extract information from the brain to diagnose disorders or to study the brain. The second branch, BCIs, uses invasive or non-invasive electrodes to extract information from the brain, not for diagnostic or research purposes, but to control external devices such as wheelchairs, computers or airplanes. And the third branch, electrical neural stimulation, uses invasive electrodes to send electrical signals to specific parts of the brain. The only defining feature these three branches have in common is that they all interface electrical devices with the brain, either to extract information from the brain or to send electrical signals to the brain.

In overview:

- Neuroimaging technologies extract information from the brain to diagnose disorders or study brain structure or function.

- BCIs extract information from the brain to control external devices such as wheelchairs, prosthesis or computers.

- Electrical neural stimulation devices stimulate parts of the brain so that symptoms like tremor, clinical depression or pain are reduced.

Timeline

This seems to be an ongoing development for the time being.

Relation to Other Technologies

Neuroelectronics is closely related to bioelectronics; the field that interfaces the human body with electrical devices. Strictly speaking neuroelectronics is a branch of bioelectronics, since the brain and nervous system are part of the human body. Bioelectronics has resulted in several healthcare applications such as electrocardiography, cardiac peacemakers and blood glucose meters. Neuroelectronics is also related to biometrics, which are technologies to uniquely identify humans based upon one or more physical or behavioral traits. Neuroimaging technologies can be used to identify humans based on their brain activity patterns. Some have argued that neuroimaging and BCIs can be used for ambient intelligence systems. Such systems need as much information of its users as possible regarding their interactions, thoughts and feelings. And information from the brain extracted either with (portable) neuroimaging technologies or BCIs provide valuable information for an ambient intelligence system (Gasson & Warwick, 2007). Finally, neuroelectronics is highly interdisciplinary and receives contributions from computer science, cognitive science, neurosurgery and biomedical engineering.

Critical Issues

Several critical issues are expressed concerning neuroelectronics in one of the texts on emerging ICT. Neuroimaging and brain-computer interfacing allow processing of neural signals and it is assumed that neural signals may indicate – even represent – thoughts. Under what conditions can the extracted neural signals be considered as creative and specific enough to invoke intellectual-property rights? Furthermore, there is a fundamental right of protection of personal data and hereby states that personal data may only be processed on the basis of the consent of the person concerned or some other legitimate basis laid down by law. Also, can certain thoughts, when registered by neuroimaging or brain-computer interfacing, be a work of invention that falls under copyright law? One question is whether processing of neural signals (personal data) without consent of the data subject (thus on the basis of another legitimate basis) can be lawful in any situation. If yes, what situation would that be and under which conditions? For example, can employers (such as schools afraid of hiring pedophiles, or intelligence services screening personnel for infiltrators), insurance providers, or the police (lie detection) ever be allowed to compulsorily process brain signals? (Gasson & Warwick, 2007).

References

Beckert, B., Bluemel, C., Friedewald, M., Thielmann, A. (2008). Converging Technologies and their impact on the Social Sciences and Humanities (CONTECS). An analysis of critical issues and a suggestion for a future research agenda. Retrieved January 4, 2010 from http://www.contecs.fraunhofer.de/images/files/contecs_report_complete.pdf

Berger, T. W. (2007). Introduction. In International Assessment of Research and Development in Brain-Computer Interfaces. Chapter one. Retrieved December 18, 2007, from http://www.wtec.org/bci/BCI-finalreport-10Oct2007-lowres.pdf

European Technology Assessment Group. (2006). Technology Assessment on Converging Technologies. Retrieved January 4, 2010 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/publications/studies/stoa183_en.pdf

Friman, O., Luth, T., Volosyak, I. and Graser, A. (2007). Spelling with Steady-State Visually Evoked Potentials. In 3rd International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering. 355 – 357.

Gasson, M. & Warwick, K. (2007). D12.1 Study On Emerging AmI Technologies. FIDIS – Future of Identity in the Information Society. [Scientific Report] Haynes, J-D. (2008). Detecting deception from neuroimaging signals – a data-driven perspective. Trends in Cognitive Science (12) 4, 126-127.

Kern, D. S. & Kumar, R. (2007). Deep Brain Stimulation. The Neurologist (13) 5, 237-252.

Rocco, M.H. & Bainbridge, W.S. (2003). Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science. Kluwer Academic Publishing. Retrieved January 4, 2010 from http://www.wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies/1/NBIC_report.pdf

Simon, S. (2005). What you don’t know can’t hurt you. Retrieved March 27, 2010, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/LET%20Article.pdf

http://moriarty.tech.dmu.ac.uk:8080/index.jsp?page=681504

The human brain could become a battlefield in future wars, a new report predicts, including ‘pharmacological land mines’ and drones directed by mind control

Rapid advances in neuroscience could have a dramatic impact on national security and the way in which future wars are fought, US intelligence officials have been told.

In a report commissioned by the Defense Intelligence Agency, leading scientists were asked to examine how a greater understanding of the brain over the next 20 years is likely to drive the development of new medicines and technologies.

They found several areas in which progress could have a profound impact, including behaviour-altering drugs, scanners that can interpret a person’s state of mind and devices capable of boosting senses such as hearing and vision.

On the battlefield, bullets may be replaced with “pharmacological land mines” that release drugs to incapacitate soldiers on contact, while scanners and other electronic devices could be developed to identify suspects from their brain activity and even disrupt their ability to tell lies when questioned, the report says.

“The concept of torture could also be altered by products in this market. It is possible that some day there could be a technique developed to extract information from a prisoner that does not have any lasting side effects,” the report states.

The report highlights one electronic technique, called transcranial direct current stimulation, which involves using electrical pulses to interfere with the firing of neurons in the brain and has been shown to delay a person’s ability to tell a lie.

Drugs could also be used to enhance the performance of military personnel. There is already anecdotal evidence of troops using the narcolepsy drug modafinil, and ritalin, which is prescribed for attention deficit disorder, to boost their performance. Future drugs, developed to boost the cognitive faculties of people with dementia, are likely to be used in a similar way, the report adds.

Greater understanding of the brain’s workings is also expected to usher in new devices that link directly to the brain, either to allow operators to control machinery with their minds, such as flying unmanned reconnaissance drones, or to boost their natural senses.

For example, video from a person’s glasses, or audio recorded from a headset, could be processed by a computer to help search for relevant information. “Experiments indicate that the advantages of these devices are such that human operators will be greatly enhanced for things like photo reconnaissance and so on,” Kit Green, who chaired the report committee, said.

The report warns that while the US and other western nations might now consider themselves at the forefront of neuroscience, that is likely to change as other countries ramp up their computing capabilities. Unless security services can monitor progress internationally, they risk “major, even catastrophic, intelligence failures in the years ahead”, the report warns.

“In the intelligence community, there is an extremely small number of people who understand the science and without that it’s going to be impossible to predict surprises. This is a black hole that needs to be filled with light,” Green told the Guardian.

The technologies will one day have applications in counter-terrorism and crime-fighting. The report says brain imaging will not improve sufficiently in the next 20 years to read peoples’ intentions from afar and spot criminals before they act, but it might be good enough to help identify people at a checkpoint or counter who are afraid or anxious.

“We’re not going to be reading minds at a distance, but that doesn’t mean we can’t detect gross changes in anxiety or fear, and then subsequently talk to those individuals to see what’s upsetting them,” Green said.

The development of advanced surveillance techniques, such as cameras that can spot fearful expressions on people’s faces, could lead to some inventive ways to fool them, the report adds, such as Botox injections to relax facial muscles.

Ian Sample
guardian.co.uk, Wednesday 13 August 2008 17.23 BST
Article history

Different biomedical devices implanted in the central nervous system, so-called neural interfaces, already have been developed to control motor disorders or to translate willful brain processes into specific actions by the control of external devices. These implants could help increase the independence of people with disabilities by allowing them to control various devices with their thoughts (not surprisingly, the other candidate for early adoption of this technology is the military).

The potential of nanotechnology application in neuroscience is widely accepted. Especially single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) have received great attention because of their unique physical and chemical features, which allow the development of devices with outstanding electrical properties. In a crucial step towards a new generation of future neuroprosthetic devices, a group of European scientists developed a SWCNT/neuron hybrid system and demonstrated that carbon nanotubes can directly stimulate brain circuit activity. Examples of existing brain implants include brain pacemakers, to ease the symptoms of such diseases as epilepsy, Parkinson’s Disease, dystonia and recently depression; retinal implants that consist of an array of electrodes implanted on the back of the retina, a digital camera worn on the user’s body, and a transmitter/image processor that converts the image to electrical signals sent to the brain; and most recently, cyberkinetics devices such as the BrainGate™ Neural Interface System that has been used successfully by quadriplegic patients to control a computer with thoughts alone. Thanks to the application of recent advances in nanotechnology to the nervous system, a novel generation of neuro-implantable devices is on the horizon, capable of restoring function loss as a result of neuronal damage or altered circuit function. The field will very soon be mature enough to explore in vivo neural implants in animal models. “We developed an integrated system coupling SWCNTs to an ex vivo reduced nervous system, where a mesh of SWCNTs deposited on glass acts as a growing substrate for rat cultured neurons” Dr. Maurizio Prato and Dr. Laura Ballerini explain to Nanowerk. “We demonstrated that neurons form functional healthy networks in vitro over a period of several days and developed a dense array of connection fibers, unexpectedly intermingled with the SWCNT meshwork with tight contacts with the cellular membranes. Ballerini, an associate professor in Physiology, and Prato, a professor in the Department of Pharmaceutical Science both at the University of Trieste, Italy, are also involved in the European Neuronano project, an advanced scientific multi-disciplinary project to develop neuronal nano-engineering by integrating neuroscience with materials science, micro- and nanotechnology. The Neuronano network’s major aim is to integrate carbon nanotubes with multi electrode array technology to develop a new generation biochips to help repair damaged central nervous system tissues. “For the first time, we show how electrical stimulation delivered through carbon nanotubes activates neuronal electrical signaling and network synaptic interactions” says Dr. Michele Giugliano, a researcher at the Brain Mind Institute at the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne in Switzerland. He is one of Ballerini’s co-authors of their recent paper “Interfacing Neurons with Carbon Nanotubes: Electrical Signal Transfer and Synaptic Stimulation in Cultured Brain Circuits”. “We developed a mathematical model of the neuron/SWCNT electrochemical interface. This model provides for the first time the basis for understanding the electrical coupling between neurons and SWCNT.” Over the past few years, there has been tremendous interest in exploiting nanotechnology materials and devices either in clinical or in basic neurosciences research. However, so far the interactions between carbon nanotubes and cellular physiology have been studied and characterized as an issue of biochemical mechanisms involving molecular transport, cellular adhesion, biocompatibility, etc. These new findings boost scientists’ understanding of interfacing the nervous system with conductive nanoparticles, at the very fast time scale of electrical neuronal activity which in mammals determines behavior, cognition and learning. “Recently, the Neuronano research group pioneered the exploration of carbon nanotubes as artificial means to interact with the collective electrical activity emerging in networks of vertebrate neurons” says Giugliano. “Biocompatibility of carbon nanotubes has been shown in the literature and several groups recently have attempted coupling neurons to carbon nanotubes to probe or elicit electrical impulses. However, specific considerations of the electrophysiological techniques that are crucial for understanding signal-transduction and electrical coupling were underestimated.” The researchers achieved direct SWCNT–neuron interactions by culturing rat hippocampal cells on a film of purified SWCNTs for 8–14 days, to allow for neuronal growth. This neuronal growth was accompanied by variable degree of neurite extension on the SWCNT mat. A detailed scanning electron microscopy analysis suggested the presence of tight interactions between cell membranes and SWCNTs at the level of neuronal processes and cell surfaces “With regards to the technological processes involved in the SWCNT deposition on glass, the chemical processes we previously developed and used in this work is the only one effectively employing no intermediate functional group to anchor the carbon nanotubes to the glass substrate, thus allowing a unique perspective of the properties and interaction of nanotubes alone” says Prato. The scientists point out that their results as a whole represent a crucial step towards future neuroprosthetic devices, exploiting the surprising mechanical and (semi)conductive properties of carbon nanotubes. This field is now closer to a quantitative understanding of how precise electrical stimulation may be delivered in deep structures by ‘brain pacemakers’ in the treatment of brain diseases. “From current and previous results of our group, it seems that carbon nanotubes could functionally interact with electrical nervous activity even in the absence of signal-conditioning integrated electronics and explicit external control” says Ballerini. “In fact, at least to some extent, (semi)conductive properties of the nanotubes might facilitate the emergence of synaptic activity. These achievements offer a promising strategy to further develop next-generation materials to be used in neurobiology.” By Michael Berger, Copyright 2007 Nanowerk LLChttp://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=2177.php ]]> http://www.synthetictelepathy.net/nano-technology/nanotechnology-coming-to-a-brain-near-you/feed/ 0